Ned Kelly is a man of Australian folklore. Peter Carey gives Kelly a voice beyond the grave in this novel—a voice for his then infant daughter, whom hNed Kelly is a man of Australian folklore. Peter Carey gives Kelly a voice beyond the grave in this novel—a voice for his then infant daughter, whom he would never meet. This plot device, unfortunately, is not based on fact, yet it is a useful method to reimagine Kelly's thoughts as he grew up to become a bushranger. Kelly was, and continues to be, considered a noble bandit rebelling against the colonial elite. Kelly asserted as much during his life, and Carey repeats it within this book. There is no doubt he and his family were treated unjustly. However, he killed four policemen in dubious circumstances. I do not think Kelly's venerable reputation is deserved....more
My girlfriend bought this for me as a reward for achieving my Å·±¦ÓéÀÖ goal last year (70 books). It was chosen for three reasons: the front cover waMy girlfriend bought this for me as a reward for achieving my Å·±¦ÓéÀÖ goal last year (70 books). It was chosen for three reasons: the front cover was well-illustrated, it was set in Sicily (her heritage), and it was a classic. Alas, not all classics are worth the time. Partially autobiographical allegory by Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, this book recounts the changes of Sicilian life during the Risorgimento (Italian unification). There were only a few moments of literary philosophy that often make such pieces worth reading. Of particular note was Prince Fabrizio's lamentation of Sicily's pathology and colonial past. Overall, though, I found the story rather slow and lacking excitement....more
The Hells Angels were founded in California in the late 1940s and rose to infamy in the mid-1960s following several high-profile events of alleged masThe Hells Angels were founded in California in the late 1940s and rose to infamy in the mid-1960s following several high-profile events of alleged mass violence and sexual assault. National media coverage terrified both the public and authorities. However, they were also a morbid spectacle. These unkempt, tattooed, and drunk men, often vulgar, violent, and impoverished, were another facet to the 1960s counter culture and anti-establishment movement. Their obnoxiously loud Harley Davidsons gave them their freedom, and their winged death head patches gave them their identity. They were misfits left behind in America's post-war posterity.
Hunter S. Thompson hung out with the Hells Angels for a year. He attended their notorious parties, befriended some members, and provided an anthropological study of them in this book. Contrary to sensationalist media reportage, Thompson argues that although lawless, they were largely harmless to the broader public. Hells Angel members were essentially losers that had failed to adapt to modern society. Although likely revelatory at the time of publishing, I found the book repetitive, with Thompson retelling several similar stories. Perhaps this is more of a reflection of the Hells Angels themselves: a vapid organisation masked in violence.
Unfortunately, this microcosm of American counterculture spread throughout the world in the coming decades. Outlaw motorcycle gangs are colloquially referred to as bikies in Australia. Hells Angels, Comancheros, Gypsy Jokers, etc, are pathetic organisations that deal in organised crime. They still get undue media attention. An assassination of a high-profile bikie in the city I live in received absurd media veneration a few years ago. These groups are ruining the most disadvantaged communities in the country by trafficking drugs like meth. Their petty and fatal turf wars also spill over into the public domain. Society would be better off without them....more
I re-read this essay as it was referenced in another book I was reading. Below is an excerpt of a larger essay I wrote while doing my masters a few yeI re-read this essay as it was referenced in another book I was reading. Below is an excerpt of a larger essay I wrote while doing my masters a few years back that referenced this seminal text.
Does the systemic validity of law delineate a duty to obey the law? During the Civil Rights Movement, pro-segregationists tacitly inferred that it might with calls of maintaining ‘law and order’—i.e., normalcy. Legal positivists, however, indicate that because a law may be systemically valid, it does not guarantee one’s obligation to uphold it. H.L.A. Hart, for instance, believes that positivist law may generate an initial prima facie duty to obey, but it is ultimately limited by its justness—so ‘there is no obligation to unfair laws�.
A law, therefore, may be systemically valid, but if it does not promote a principle of fairness, there may not be a duty to obey it. Why should justness underpin obeyance? Philosophers generally posit that the human enterprise is to live well. This endeavour invariably requires fair laws to govern interactions between people. If laws are not underpinned by fairness, they may become instruments of oppression and despotism—e.g., segregation. What determines whether a law is just or unjust? Martin Luther King proclaims that ‘a just law is a man-made code that squares with the moral law, or the law of God�.
King was influenced by St Thomas Aquinas—a natural law theorist and Christian theologian. Aquinas stated that ‘the light is placed by nature [and thus by God] in every man to guide him in his acts�. Among God’s creations, only humans can use reason to govern their lives. The master principle of natural law is that ‘good should be done and pursued and evil avoided�. How do we know what is good? Guided by scripture, Aquinas mentions that ‘we know there are a variety that count as good and thus to be pursued—life, procreation, knowledge, society and reasonable conduct�.
King thereby argued that segregation ought to be disobeyed because it was inherently ‘evil� and against God. Moreover, countering legal positivists, King implicitly postulates that if the law lacks moral scruples, it may not even be systemically valid, quoting St Augustine—another natural law theorist—that ‘an unjust law is no law at all�. Thus, according to King, whether a law ought to be obeyed depends on whether it is just or unjust, and justness is inferred via Christian-theological determinations of ‘good� and ‘evil�. However, although this conception of natural law explicated racial injustice, its theological underpinnings may not be sound.
Scripture asserts that homosexuality is sinful. Aquinas considered homosexuals to be unnatural and immoral, thereby justifying their legal oppression throughout history. Although King was assassinated before the Stonewall riots, would he have followed Aquinas in considering homosexual oppression just? Perhaps. Martin Long observes that given King’s ‘reiteration of traditional church teachings on the sacredness of sex in marriage� he was no ally on behalf of gays and gay rights during his lifetime�. Thus, theological natural law arguably dictates that homosexuals must obey laws that oppress them because their existence opposes the ‘law of God�....more
An unnamed Englishman's attempt to assassinate an unnamed European dictator is foiled. He escapes back to England, where he begins a game of cat and mAn unnamed Englishman's attempt to assassinate an unnamed European dictator is foiled. He escapes back to England, where he begins a game of cat and mouse with the secret police of the European country. Although cornered, he never gives up hope, and sanguine ingenuity may just save the day. Geoffrey Household subtly and entertainingly examines the nexus of politics and violence. Was the Englishman's venture in tyrannicide justified? Perhaps—he sought retribution for the extinguishment of liberty and life. However, as evinced by the rise of Octavian following Caesar's assassination, there is no guarantee that liberty and peace will be restored with political violence....more
Gangs of youth roam freely in the night committing heinous acts. Alex is one of these youths. After a break-in goes wrong, he is sent to prison and unGangs of youth roam freely in the night committing heinous acts. Alex is one of these youths. After a break-in goes wrong, he is sent to prison and undergoes bio-psychosocial treatment intended to transform his ways. Is it unethical? Yes. Does it stop him from committing violence? Yes. Burgess subtly critiques society's dissonant desire for law and order alongside the ethical treatment of malefactors. However, this book falls short. The graphic physical and sexual violence is superfluous, and somewhat redundant considering the rather amicable "growing up" conclusion. In my opinion, this book is only considered a "classic" because of its portrayal of obscenities. ...more
Vengeance is a dish best served severed. "McBeth" is a tale of power, treachery, cowardice, gluttony, and guilt. McBeth has just fought valiantly for Vengeance is a dish best served severed. "McBeth" is a tale of power, treachery, cowardice, gluttony, and guilt. McBeth has just fought valiantly for king and country and been rewarded with new noble titles. However, after seeing apparitions from witches whereby McBeth wears the crown, Lady McBeth convinces her husband to commit regicide despite the latter's hesitation. McBeth's newfound power is not guaranteed as rumours abound, and power brokers flee for safety in foreign lands. McBeth revels in this power, whereas Lady McBeth's resolve wavers. Be careful what you wish for. You might get it, but only fleetingly and at the cost of everything....more
To read, or not to read (Hamlet), that is the question. One definitely should—not just for the famous "To be, or not to be" soliloquy where Hamlet speTo read, or not to read (Hamlet), that is the question. One definitely should—not just for the famous "To be, or not to be" soliloquy where Hamlet speaks in abstract about the inherent unfairness of life and whether death is an acceptable alternative, but also for the captivating and timeless plot. Hamlet exacts revenge on his fratricidal uncle Claudius, who has usurped the crown after killing Hamlet's father and marrying Hamlet's mother. It is a tragic tale of duplicity, intrigue, murder, love, and friendship. Is responding to violence with violence the answer to injustice, or is it a vicious cycle that condemns all its participants? Whatever the answer, it is important to have a friend like Horatio by your side....more
"Et tu, Brute?" These are the famous last words uttered by Caesar in Shakespeare's eponymous tragedy. Brutus and others killed Caesar to save Rome fro"Et tu, Brute?" These are the famous last words uttered by Caesar in Shakespeare's eponymous tragedy. Brutus and others killed Caesar to save Rome from tyranny. One hundred years of preceding intermittent civil violence and institutional decline culminated in civil war. The Second Triumvirate--led by Octavian--prevailed over Caesar's killers, yet concomitantly killed the Republic. Although I knew the history, Shakespeare's prowess with the English language absorbingly reiterates this ancient tale. The seeds of Rome's decline were sown before Caesar's time, yet he was the one who crossed the Rubicon. Are we seeing something similar in today's super power?...more
Faust is considered the greatest work of German literature. It is a long narrative poem, with a compelling plot. The suicidal Dr Faust is God's favourFaust is considered the greatest work of German literature. It is a long narrative poem, with a compelling plot. The suicidal Dr Faust is God's favourite scholar. Mephistopheles—a demon—makes a bet with God that he can lead Dr Faust astray. God accepts the bet. With Mephistopheles' supernatural powers, Dr Faust feigns love for a woman and impregnates her out of wedlock. What ensues is tragic. Nonetheless, it is a tale that does not stand the test of time. Such tragedy, thankfully, would not occur today due to the piecemeal (and ongoing) dismantling of Christian-based morality that tyrannised women for millennia....more
If only The Republic by Cicero had survived until modernity in its entirety. Alas. Cicero was heavily influenced by Plato's Republic: the eponymous tiIf only The Republic by Cicero had survived until modernity in its entirety. Alas. Cicero was heavily influenced by Plato's Republic: the eponymous title, its equal composition of six books, and utilising the Socratic dialogue. Rather than discussing the ideal state, however, Cicero outlined the development of Rome's constitution. With concomitant philosophical scepticism, this approach enabled Cicero to obliquely criticise aspirational tyrants of his age--i.e., the First Triumvirate: Caesar, Pompey and Crassus. Moreover, Cicero applies Greek political theory to help understand the ultimately fatal afflictions facing his beloved Roman Republic.
The Laws--similarly influenced by Plato--have also had large sections lost to time. Nonetheless, enough survives to ascertain sufficient understanding of Cicero's jurisprudence. He conceptualises an idealised state of Roman law prior to the Gracchi brothers when Rome's classes ostensibly existed in harmony. Only minor reforms were considered necessary, namely providing the senate with legislative authority and tweaking the roles of various magistrates. Cicero also articulates his views on natural law, which he described as eternal, governing the actions of a reasoned person, commanding what should be done and what is prohibited.
Tribunes represented the plebeians and checked the magistrates. Plebeians' latent power intimidated the patricians. The populist Gracchi used the power of the tribune's office to promote plebians' desire for land reform. Both Gracchi were murdered. Cicero considers this moment as the beginning of Rome's constitutional decline--not murder, but the dereliction of Rome's superficial class harmony. The plebians sought fairness, whereas the patricians sought tyrannical power. The latter unleashed violence upon the people, the Republic, and ultimately Cicero. Perhaps if the plebeians were given more power, Rome's Republic may have endured....more
In this short essay, George Orwell critiques the commonplace usage of dying metaphors, operators, pretentious diction, and meaningless words. Orwell aIn this short essay, George Orwell critiques the commonplace usage of dying metaphors, operators, pretentious diction, and meaningless words. Orwell asserts that one must never use a common metaphor, simile, or idiom; never use a long word when a short one will do; always cut a word out if possible; use the active voice over the passive when you can; use an English word over a foreign phrase; and break any of these rules to avoid saying something that is outright barbarous. Orwell lampoons political language, where "lies sound truthful and murder respectable." By using clear English, one is likely to see the stupidity of people's political language, and speak truthfully....more
Oratorically, philosophically, and politically, Cicero was one of the great men of the Roman Republic. Whether facing Catiline or Caesar, Cicero stoodOratorically, philosophically, and politically, Cicero was one of the great men of the Roman Republic. Whether facing Catiline or Caesar, Cicero stood up for liberty and republicanism. He paid the ultimate price when he was murdered by Antony in the civil war that proceeded the Ides of March. Despite his death, Cicero was respected by his contemporaries. Augustus, for example, posthumously praised him despite holding antithetical views to Cicero's dispositions. Cicero's writings also influenced thinkers like Locke, Montesquieu and America's Founding Fathers. Thus, Cicero's death was not in vain; his republican virtue buttressed modern liberty.
Alongside an introduction by Michael Grant, Selected Works includes speeches and essays, such as Against Varres, I; The Second Philippic Against Antony; On Duties, III; On Old Age; and dozens of private letters. His political-philosophical magnum opuses are not included--i.e., The Republic, and The Laws. Nonetheless, Cicero's political philosophy remains imbued throughout. The value of this volume is augmented with additional historical information that contextualises Cicero's work, and provides a quasi-biography of Cicero's life. The Second Philippic Against Antony may be one of the great polemics of all time.
Few can match the genius of Cicero. Nonetheless, one can, and ought to, strive to reach his virtue, particularly in contemporary America. Many Trumpian sycophants support his anti-republican ambitions. Axios reports Byron Donalds (R-Fla) as a Veep contender for Trump. He has already stated that he would be willing to decline certification of the 2028 presidential elections if a Democrat were to succeed a Trump second term (Trump and his supporters attempted to pressure Pence to do this on January 6). Modern America is not analogous to Ancient Rome. Nonetheless, the survival of extant institutions requires Ciceronian virtue....more
Published in 1689, A Letter Concerning Toleration is a seminal piece of political-philosophical literature. John Locke argued that there should be a sPublished in 1689, A Letter Concerning Toleration is a seminal piece of political-philosophical literature. John Locke argued that there should be a separation between the state and religion. The purpose of the state is to protect life, liberty and property--not forcefully inculcate individual religious belief. Locke further contends that religions ought to be tolerated. This, in turn, contributes to greater societal development. Tolerance, however, is limited. Religions must be non-violent and not seek to overthrow civil government. The influence of Lockean thought is evinced by modern secular societies.
Locke controversially argues that atheists cannot be tolerated as they have no motivation to follow rules without a concomitant fear in god. Such thinking indicts theologians for relying on threats of punishment to be good--why not just be good for goods sake? It is also historically ironic because Locke writes half a century after the Thirty Years War and one year after the Glorious Revolution. Both were underpinned by religious differences, with the former resulting in up to eight million deaths, and the latter threatening a second English civil war. By contrast, at no point in history have atheists proselytised with violence. ...more
The Federalist Papers are a collection of 85 essays authored by Alexander Hamilton (51), James Madison (29), and John Jay (5). They were written over The Federalist Papers are a collection of 85 essays authored by Alexander Hamilton (51), James Madison (29), and John Jay (5). They were written over six months and published under the alias of Publius in various New York newspapers. The authors' raison d'etre was to convince New York citizens to ratify the United States Constitution that had been drafted in 1787. The former Articles of Confederation had proved ineffective, particularly in areas concerning self-defence, taxation, and commerce. With the rise of American global hegemony, the Federalist Papers have become some of the most influential works of political science in modern times.
This book is quite long, and, in parts, repetitive. This is not the authors' fault, as the essays were not originally conceived as a cohesive book. Consequently, for those with limited time, I recommend selective reading. Essays of note include Federalist 10 about the role of factions within the republic; Federalist 32 on taxation powers; Federalist 39 respecting the benefits of the new nation; Federalist 42 on the scope of federal power; Federalist 51 regarding the checks and balances of the federalist system; Federalist 68 about the election of the president; and Federalist 78 regarding the independence of the federal judiciary.
Greco-Roman history is referenced throughout. In Federalist 9, for instance, Hamilton posited his dread at ancient republics' oscillation between tyranny and anarchy. Liberty intermittently flourished but was dismissed by 'tempestuous waves of sedition and party rage'. Only a firm union comprised of virtuous republican citizens can ensure peace and liberty. The present Republican Party led by Donald Trump is not philosophically republican. He incites rage and sedition--January 6th--and routinely calls for his opponents' imprisonment. Only constitutional checks and balances, rooted in ancient principles, are preventing his dictatorial ambitions....more
Primarily written by Thomas Jefferson in 1776, the Declaration of Independence has some of the most influential and inspiring sentences of the EnglishPrimarily written by Thomas Jefferson in 1776, the Declaration of Independence has some of the most influential and inspiring sentences of the English language. It declares the equality of all men and their unalienable rights--i.e., life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It also asserts the right that people can proclaim their independence based on natural law; outlines a liberal political philosophy justifying revolution; and specifies a list of grievances against the British Crown thereby attesting the American colonies right to secede from the British Empire.
The ineffective Articles of Confederation necessitated the drafting of the Constitution of the United States in 1787. Strongly influenced by the English Bill of Rights and enlightenment thinkers like Locke and Montesquieu, this document delineates the powers of the federal government. The first three articles establish the separation of powers--legislative, executive, and judicial. The remaining articles outline federalist concepts, including states' rights and responsibilities and their interactions with the federal government, amendment procedures, and ratification. It is the oldest continuing written constitution in the world.
The American State Papers are not perfect. Despite the Founding Fathers' ideals of liberty, many people remained unfree. Nonetheless, the "majestic generalities" and recognition of the need for constitutional change enabled activists to obtain their freedoms overtime--e.g., the 13th amendment abolishing slavery, the 19th amendment granting women the right to vote, or the 26th amendment lowering the voting age to 18. Despite ongoing imperfections in America, it is the ideals of these documents and Americans' pursuit to realise them that truly make America great.
Reading the Constitution is essential in America's current political climate. Unprecedented constitutional law is being made. For instance, the Supreme Court recently ruled that states could not disqualify Donald Trump from the presidential ballot by under Section 3 of the 14th amendment. Donald Trump is also frivolously arguing that presidents have unconditional immunity under Article II. This is highly unlikely. However, there is a likelihood of Donald Trump winning the next election, being found guilty of a felony and going to prison. Is he eligible to pardon himself or even continue to serve as president? We shall see.
Addendum:
Donald Trump is president again, and the Supreme Court has found that presidents have immunity while committing an official act. What this means, however, is unclear. As Justice Sotomayor elegantly stated in her dissent: "When he uses his official powers in any way, under the majority’s reasoning, he now will be insulated from criminal prosecution. Orders the Navy’s Seal Team 6 to assassinate a political rival? Immune. Organizes a military coup to hold onto power? Immune. Takes a bribe in exchange for a pardon? Immune. Immune, immune, immune." America is on the verge of a constitutional crisis, with a president who may be above the law....more
Aristotle's students wrote 158 constitutions in Ancient Greece. The Athenian Constitution is the sole surviving document. It is dissimilar in compositAristotle's students wrote 158 constitutions in Ancient Greece. The Athenian Constitution is the sole surviving document. It is dissimilar in composition to contemporary constitutions like America or Australia. Rather, it provides a concise political history of Athens' democratic development from the 7th to the 5th century BC. It details Solon's overthrow of Draco's laws, the return of tyranny under Pisistratus and his sons, and the establishment of democracy by Cleisthenes and his successors. The final third explains the functioning of Athens' political institutions. Overall, it is a brief and insightful read....more
Aristotle's Politics is the foundational text of political science. In short, Aristotle propounded that political science was the study of the regime.Aristotle's Politics is the foundational text of political science. In short, Aristotle propounded that political science was the study of the regime. It is the master science because politics impacts the operation of all other science, and it is a practical science that normatively expresses the common good. There are several questions a political scientist ought to analyse: what is the best regime given the circumstances, what knowledge is required to ensure regime stability, and how one may change the regime if it is necessary. Optimal results require methodological plurality and ensuring that the method meets the subject and not the reverse.
Aristotle outlines that power can be distributed to the one (monarchy and tyranny), the few (aristocracy and oligarchy), or the many (constitutional government or democracy). Depending on the circumstances, there are reasoned arguments for each regime. Aristotle subsequently proposes an empirically-based ideal state: a homogenous society with common fealty united by a constitutional government--the combination of oligarchy and democracy under the rule of law. Such consonance, however, may be undermined by two large factions with equal capabilities competing for power, or this form of governance differs from surrounding ones.
Aristotle's postulations dissented Plato's. The latter's ideal state was antipolitical--i.e., harmony was ensured and change was unnecessary. Aristotle reinserted politics into the ideal state, positing that change may be necessary overtime despite harmony initially being achieved via constitutional government. Moreover, asserting that members of a state have common fealty, Aristotle differs from Hobbes and rationalist economists in presupposing that individuals are not merely self-interested. Lastly, Aristotle somewhat anticipates thinkers like Polybius and Montesquieu by suggesting that power diffusion produces greater regime stability.
Aristotle's relevance to contemporary America is evident. Congress, akin to oligarchy, is largely comprised of affluent individuals or political families. They are elected by the people and governed by the rule of law. However, America's regime is arguably threatened. Two polarising equal factions vie for power--Democrats and Republicans. Moreover, America is a great power rival to authoritarian states like China and Russia, who seek to usurp Western liberal hegemony. Aristotle warns that a spark may burn down the constitutional order. By this time, it is too late. Reform should have happened yesterday. This spark may be Donald Trump....more
The Symposium by Plato was written around 380BC and is considered one of the great works of literature and philosophy in the Western canon. Narrated bThe Symposium by Plato was written around 380BC and is considered one of the great works of literature and philosophy in the Western canon. Narrated by Apollodorus, it depicts a drinking party in Ancient Athens in 416BC celebrating Agathon's prize for best tragedy at the Lenaia festival. Notable attendees include Phaedrus, Pausanias, Eryximachus, Aristophanes, Socrates, and Alcibiades. The Symposium is a dialogue. However, unlike Plato's other dialogues, much of the content is delivered via speeches with the exception of Socrates' postulations which follow the Socratic Method. The topic of discussion is Eros, the god of love and desire.
Phaedrus states that love is courage and virtue. Pausanias says there is base love: sexual gratification with women; and noble love: erotic and affectionate sharing wisdom with young men. Eryximachus expounds that love affects not just humans, but all things. Aristophanes satirically states that there were originally three sexes: all-male, all-female, and androgynous. Zeus split them apart. Love is the desire to find their other half. Agathon outlines love as youthful beauty. Socrates asserts that love is wisdom--i.e., philosophy. Alcibiades extols his love for Socrates, his enslavement to his passions, and jealousy of Socrates' platonic love.
Justice is the implicit theme of this dialogue. In 415BC, Alcibiades led the Sicilian Expedition in the Peloponnesian War. Athens was routed and Alcibiades fled to Sparta. Thucydides contends that this calamity led to the ultimate downfall of the Athenian Empire by Sparta in 404BC. Alcibiades, driven by love of glory, found himself unable to master his passions. In "The Republic," Plato asserts that justice is temperance of the passions, favouring wisdom so the soul functions harmoniously. If Alcibiades could have achieved personal justice/love and instilled that on Athens, the city-state may have avoided destruction, and instead flourished in harmony....more
Gorgias is a Platonic dialogue between Socrates and sophists. Socrates begins by pursuing the nature of sophistry, specifically rhetoric. Gorgias arguGorgias is a Platonic dialogue between Socrates and sophists. Socrates begins by pursuing the nature of sophistry, specifically rhetoric. Gorgias argues that rhetoric, as a form of persuasion, prioritises conviction over facts. Gorgias asserts that rhetoric ought to be used for good, yet admits that one may not do so. If the latter, Gorgias proclaims that the teacher cannot be blamed. Socrates believes this is unjust. If one was a good teacher, they would instil justice into their pupil. Vis-Ã -vis politics, Socrates argues that the philosopher is the specialist in matters of justice. Philosophy, not sophistry, should therefore underpin a political education.
Although this is a fictional dialogue, it is important to recognise an empirical flaw in Plato's/Socrates' argument. Socrates taught Alcibiades, an Athenian statesman and general. Alcibiades acted unjustly. He was accused of aspiring to tyranny and fled to Sparta--Athens' enemy during the Peloponnesian War. Plato was also the teacher of many tyrants, including Dionysius of Syracuse. If the teacher is to blame for the actions of their students, therefore Socrates and Plato are culpable for the unjust actions of Alcibiades and Dionysius. Perhaps philosophers are not good teachers; perhaps philosophy does not guarantee justice.
Socrates contends that receiving injustice is preferable to inflicting it, as the latter harms ones soul, while the former does not. Socrates implicitly asserts that all souls are the same, and that harmed souls will be punished by the gods if they escape punishment in the mortal world. However, modern evidence suggests that tyrants--e.g., Alcibiades and Dionysus--are often sociopaths. Their 'soul' may therefore not be corrupted by acts of injustice. Additionally, Socrates readily admits that his judgment in the afterlife argument is based on Greek mythology. Such logic appears comparable to the sophist who prioritises conviction over facts.
Intertwined in this dialogue are several other themes, including temperance, ethics, and the pursuit of happiness. Compared to other Platonic dialogues where Socrates' postulations are met with agreement by his interlocutors, the sophists offer more rigorous rebuttals. The arguments presented can be esoteric at times and may require rereading. This said, Gorgias is reasonably short and provides a good introduction into Platonic philosophy. For deeper understanding, I recommend reading it alongside other dialogues concerning Socrates' trial and execution, namely Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Meno and Phaedo....more
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